Scientists 3D Print Artificial Neurons That Connect To Living Cells

What if it were possible to print artificial neurons that communicate directly with the brain? This new technology could revolutionize everything from artificial intelligence to the treatment of neurological diseases, and most impressively: it already works on real cells.

The human brain has always been one of the greatest inspirations for science and technology. It can process a gigantic amount of information using very little energy, something that modern computers still cannot match. Therefore, researchers have been trying to create artificial systems that mimic the functioning of neurons, the cells responsible for communication in the brain.

In this context, an impressive innovation emerges: artificial neurons that can be literally printed and that can "talk" to real neurons.

In this study, scientists developed these artificial neurons using a special printing method, similar to a high-precision printer that deposits materials in very thin layers. They used advanced materials, such as microscopic sheets of a compound called molybdenum disulfide, combined with graphene.

These materials were arranged in such a way as to create devices capable of mimicking the electrical behavior of neurons, especially the generation of "spikes" of electrical activity, which are the basis of neural communication.

Image: Robert A. McDougal, and Gordon M. Shepherd. Front. Neuroinform., 30 June 2015 Volume 9 - 2015 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fninf.2015.00018

An essential part of the work was understanding how these devices function internally. To do this, the researchers used real-time thermal images and mathematical models.

They observed that when an electric current passes through the device, small regions heat up and form temporary conductive pathways, like "shortcuts" through which electricity flows. These pathways appear and disappear rapidly, allowing the system to generate electrical signals similar to those of biological neurons.

After building these artificial neurons, the scientists organized them into circuits to test whether they could reproduce different patterns of brain activity. They were able to generate behaviors typical of real neurons, such as accumulating signals until reaching a limit and then firing, responding with a delay, or producing rhythmic patterns. These patterns are important because they are linked to brain functions such as movement, learning, and information processing.

3D Printer for Neurons

To verify if these artificial neurons could actually interact with the brain, researchers conducted an experiment with mouse brain tissue. They connected the devices to slices of the cerebellum, a region important for motor coordination.

Most impressively, the living neurons responded to the artificial signals as if they were receiving messages from other natural neurons. This indicates that communication between artificial and biological systems may be much more integrated than previously imagined.

Another important aspect of the study was energy efficiency. Unlike traditional computers, which consume a lot of energy and generate heat, these artificial neurons operate much more economically, directly inspired by the human brain. Furthermore, the manufacturing method is more sustainable, as it uses only the necessary amount of material, reducing waste.

Image: George Flamourakis et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202409451

Finally, this technology opens doors to very promising future applications. It can be used in the development of brain-machine interfaces, intelligent prostheses, treatments for neurological diseases, and even new types of more efficient and adaptable artificial intelligence. Although still in its early stages, the study shows that we are getting closer to integrating electronic systems directly with the human brain in a functional way.

READ MORE:

Printed MoS2 memristive nanosheet networks for spiking neurons with multi-order complexity

Shreyash S. Hadke, Carol N. Klingler, Spencer T. Brown, Meghana Holla, Xudong Zhuang, Linda Li, M. Iqbal Bakti Utama, Santiago Diaz-Arauzo, Anurag Chapagain, Siyang Li, Jung Hun Lee, Indira M. Raman, Vinod K. Sangwan, and Mark C. Hersam. 

Nature Nanotechnology. 15 April 2026

DOI:10.1038/s41565-026-02149-6

Abstract:

Artificial neurons that reproduce the rich dynamical behaviour of biological spiking are essential for neuromorphic hardware and biohybrid interfaces, yet scalable solution-processed devices with physiologically relevant spiking characteristics remain elusive. Here we demonstrate aerosol-jet-printed memristive networks of MoS2 nanosheets that exhibit thermally activated filamentary switching and snap-back negative differential resistance, enabling volatile threshold switching in fully printed graphene/MoS2/graphene devices on flexible substrates. In situ thermal imaging and circuit modelling reveal that current-constricted filaments formed through Joule heating govern the nonlinear switching dynamics. These printed memristors enable oscillatory and spiking neuron circuits with tunable frequencies up to 20 kHz and stable operation over more than 106 cycles. Simple neuristor circuits realize first-, second- and third-order spiking complexity, including integrate-and-fire behaviour, spike latency, tonic firing, class 1 excitability, tonic bursting and phasic dynamics. The generated spike waveforms match physiological timescales and stimulate Purkinje neurons in mouse cerebellar slices. Our results establish printed nanosheet memristive networks as a scalable platform for bio-realistic neuromorphic hardware and flexible brain–machine interfaces.